Involvement In Policy Formulation Research Articles

Strategies for engaging older adults and informal caregivers in health policy development: A scoping review.

Care for older adults is high on the global policy agenda. Active involvement of older adults and their informal caregivers in policy-making can lead to cost-effective health and long-term care interventions. Yet, approaches for their involvement in health policy development have yet to be extensively explored. This review maps the literature on strategies for older adults (65+years) and informal caregivers' involvement in health policy development. As part of the European Union TRANS-SENIOR program, a scoping review was conducted using the Joanna Briggs Institute's methodology. Published and grey literature was searched, and eligible studies were screened. Data were extracted from included studies and analysed using the Multidimensional Framework for Patient and Family Engagement in Health and Healthcare. A total of 13 engagement strategies were identified from 11 publications meeting the inclusion criteria. They were categorized as "traditional", "deliberative" and "others", adopting the World Bank's categorization of engagement methods. Older adults and informal caregivers are often consulted to elicit opinions and identify priorities. However, their involvement in policy formulation, implementation and evaluation is unclear from the available literature. Findings indicate that older adults and their informal caregivers do not often have equal influence and shared leadership in policy-making. Although approaches for involving older adults and their informal caregivers' involvement were synthesized from literature, we found next to no information about their involvement in policy formulation, implementation and evaluation. Findings will guide future research in addressing identified gaps and guide policy-makers in identifying and incorporating engagement strategies to support evidence-informed policy-making processes that can improve health outcomes for older adults/informal caregivers.

Impact of Student Councils involvement in School Policy Formulation on School Discipline in Public Secondary Schools in Meru County

The cases of students’ unrests in secondary schools have been rampant across the country. The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of student council’s involvement in school policy formulation on students’ discipline in public secondary schools in Meru County. The study adopted mixed methods approach. The target population was deputy principals, heads of departments of guidance and counselling, and presidents of student councils all drawn from 326 secondary schools of Meru County summing up to a total population of 978 respondents. Questionnaires were used to collect data from heads of guidance and counselling department and presidents of student councils while interviews schedules were used to collect data from deputy principles. The findings indicated that students’ council involvement in policy formulation was statistically associated with the level of students’ discipline in secondary schools. This was supported by the log odds result where a unit increase in students council involvement on policy formulation does improve the odds of the level of discipline being satisfactory as indicated by the exponential beta results (Exp (B) = 6.271). An improvement on student councils’ involvement on policy formulation increases the probability of having satisfactory discipline in secondary schools by 6.271 times. Therefore, at P= 0.023<.05 level of significance the null hypothesis is rejected and accepts the alternate hypotheses implying that student council’s involvement in school policy formulation has a significant influence on students’ discipline. It can therefore be concluded that schools with high students’ council involvement on policy formulation have higher chances of having higher level of students discipline as compared to those without or with low student council involvement in policy formulation. The school administration should involve student’s council in the management of discipline by engaging them in amendment, formulating and enforcing school rules and regulations. This would reduce indiscipline cases in the school and improve on their management of students’ discipline. Keywords: Student Council’s Involvement, School Policy Formulation to enhance, Students’ Discipline, Public Secondary Schools

Citizen Participation in the Formulation of Public Policy in Mombasa County, Kenya

To assist the government in determining its mandate, citizens should be involved as they best know their needs. The significance of citizen engagement in the process of policy formulation is rooted in among others, the fact that public policy outputs and effects affect those to whom the policy is targeted at. This study aimed to determine the effect of public participation in the public policy making process in Mombasa County, Kenya. The objectives of the research were; to establish the modes of citizen participation used in public policy making process in Mombasa County, Kenya; to determine the main factors that influence citizen participation in public policy making process; to establish the implication of citizen participation in public policy making process and to determine the extent of citizen/ public participation in public policy making process. The study was guided by Good Governance Theory.  The study utilized descriptive survey research design. The study targeted 560 County government and civil society representatives including women leaders, youth leaders and people living with disabilities representatives. The study used Yamane formulae to determine the sample size of 233 respondents. Purposive sampling was employed to select respondents. Data were collected through primary sources which include questionnaire, and interview schedule; while the secondary data were collected from the documentary sources. Data analysis involved both quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative data were analyzed descriptively and inferentially, and presented through frequency tables, pie chart and bar graphs. Qualitative data were analyzed by themes and presented through narration and pros forms. The findings of the study established that the main factors that affect citizen participation in formulation of public policy include direct benefits (financial, material), tangible or non-tangible to long or short term, among others. Other factors such as culture, history, government policy and social, political and economic structures influence community participation. Also, the findings of the study revealed that citizens are well acquainted with public policy processes and there is effective county government guidelines and clear standards enhance public policy making processes. The study findings revealed that involvement in policy formulation is positively related to performance. Also, consultation enables easy supervision of work. The research also concluded that education is essential for both parties who are participating towards high quality public policy formulation as it would certainly reduce unnecessary manipulation and the problem brought on by lack of knowledge, accountability and transparency and understanding of each party’s requirements. The study recommends that County Government of Mombasa should establish a participatory framework that allows citizens to monitor and evaluate development outcomes in the counties to ensure better decision making and implementation for subsequent projects and plans.

Big food and the World Health Organization: a qualitative study of industry attempts to influence global-level non-communicable disease policy

IntroductionThere is an urgent need for effective action to address the over 10 million annual deaths attributable to unhealthy diets. Food industry interference with policies aimed at reducing non-communicable diseases...

Prevention of Adolescent Pregnancy in Anglophone Sub-Saharan Africa: A Scoping Review of National Policies.

Background: Despite the existence of preventive policies across sub-Saharan Africa, countries within the sub-region lead global rankings for rates of adolescent pregnancy. The aim of this scoping review was to identify and review national policies on the prevention of adolescent pregnancy in Anglophone sub-Saharan Africa. Methods: Relevant policies were identified from searches of national government websites and the search engine Google. Recognised screening and data extraction processes were used; data were subjected to content analysis using a published Framework for Evaluating Program and Policy Design on Adolescent Reproductive Health. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) extension for scoping reviews guidelines was used in reporting the review.Results:In line with the inclusion criteria that guided the selection of relevant policies in this study, 17 of 75 national policies were suitable for the analysis. All were backed by political recognition, were government and public initiatives, acknowledged a range of determinants of adolescent pregnancy and allocated human resources to policy activities. Few specified financial resourcing. Most policies acknowledged the importance of coordination and collaboration among public and private actors. All policies had objectives that addressed adolescent pregnancy but none were measurable or included timeframes. Provision of comprehensive sexuality education and adolescent reproductive health services were the most common recommendations. Monitoring and evaluation plans were present in all the policies. However, youth involvement in policy formulation, and plans for implementation, monitoring and evaluation was scarce. Conclusion: Overall, national policy strengths were seen in relation to their political recognition, and all aspects of policy formulation. Policy implementation strengths and weaknesses were identified, the latter in relation to clear descriptions of financial resources. Importantly, the absence of measurable and time-bound objectives or formal evaluation of policy effectiveness confounds demonstration of what has been delivered and achieved. Youth involvement was notably absent in many policies. For future policy-setting, governments and policy-makers should make efforts to engage young people in policy development and to be transparent, realistic and address the necessary financial resourcing. They should set quantifiable policy objectives that provide a basis for assessing the adoption, uptake and effectiveness of policies in relation to measurable objectives.

Classifying the Implementation of the EU's Normative Power in its Southern Neighbourhood: The Role of Local Actors

AbstractThis article examines the role of local actors in the implementation of the European Union (EU) norms in the Arab Mediterranean countries (AMCs) after 2011. It argues that their role is determined by two parameters: their degree of involvement in policy formulation and the position of other external actors towards the EU norms. Based on this categorization, the article generates a typology of the application of the EU norms, and claims that their implementation in the AMCs takes a thin or a thick form. The findings of this typology suggest that holistic and Eurocentric narratives of the EU's normative power should be revisited. The implementation of EU norms must be contextualized and is conditional upon the differentiated role of local sectoral actors. For explaining the articulation of the EU's norms, this study considers two key sectors of the revised European Neighbourhood Policy: (1) democracy promotion and (2) sustainable development.

GOVERNMENTALITY: CASES OF THE RAYJA HOTEL CONFLICT CONSTRUCTION PERMIT, BUMIAJI SUB-DISTRICT, BATU

Governance concept implies a shift in the role of the government, private sector and community, so that it necessary synergy in the implementation of the government. Community involvement in policy formulation needed to build the quality of local government. In reality, this ideal has not been able to be implemented in developing countries, in particular Indonesia. In Batu City, there is resistance against the construction of hotel residents who opposed the Rayja Local Regulation no. 7 of 2011 on Spatial Planning state that Sumber Gemulo is a protected area. Differences in knowledge caused a power space on each of the actors, in particular the Government. Space power it seeks to create a discourse by the main actor, Mayor. A series of regulatory practices that occur as a strategy of "disciplining” and "tourism city" as a discourse. It also has affected to create a new claims and governmentality among actors. This research used explanatory - case study method. To minimize bias in the classification of the actor then analyzes that support this research is Narrative Policy Analysis (NPA). This research was conducted in Batu City, East Java Province. The results of this study prove that the government is in the process of giving the IMB Hotel Rayja is not regulatory governance practices.

Using the Courts to Protect the Environment in Argentina: Accountability Pitfalls When Judges Have the Last Word

In July 2006, 17 neighbors and health professionals living in the basin of one of the most polluted rivers in the world—the Matanza-Riachuelo—brought a case before the Supreme Court of Argentina. They claimed extensive health damages due to the level of contamination of the basin. The lawsuit was filed against the federal, provincial, and city governments, as well as 44 private companies [1]. This case study introduces readers to the growing pattern of judicialization of environmental policies. This trend was initially celebrated by many activists since a Supreme Court responsive to people’s demands and focused on protecting the environment could address long-standing policy failures of the executive and legislative branches of government. However, this case study examines two main ways in which judicialization may generate an accountability crisis for communities affected by environmental disasters. First, it raises a theoretical argument that a Court that takes on managerial functions beyond its adjudicative role distorts the normal horizontal accountability functions that are part of the division of powers between the three branches of government. Second, it empirically demonstrates that a Court’s involvement in policy formulation does not guarantee effectiveness and precludes vertical accountability, since citizens cannot vote judges out of office. The case suggests that judicializing environmental politics is fraught with risks to democratic accountability. These must be considered carefully before embracing the judiciary as a band-aid remedy to an executive branch that fails to protect people and the environment.

Adaptation to Climatic Hazards in the Savannah Ecosystem: Improving Adaptation Policy and Action.

People in Ghana's savannah ecosystem have historically experienced a range of climatic hazards that have affected their livelihoods. In view of current climate variability and change, and projected increases in extreme events, adaptation to climate risks is vital. Policies have been put in place to enhance adaptation across sub-Saharan Africa in accordance with international agreements. At the same time, local people, through experience, have learned to adapt. This paper examines current policy actions and their implementation alongside an assessment of barriers to local adaptation. In doing so it links adaptation policy and practice. Policy documents were analysed that covered key livelihood sectors, which were identified as climate sensitive. These included agriculture, water, housing and health policies, as well as the National Climate Change Policy. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions were also held with key stakeholders in the Upper East Region of Ghana. Analyses were carried using thematic content analysis. Although policies and actions complement each other, their integration is weak. Financial, institutional, social, and technological barriers hinder successful local implementation of some policy actions, while lack of local involvement in policy formulation also hinders adaptation practice. Integration of local perspectives into policy needs to be strengthened in order to enhance adaptation. Coupled with this is a need to consider adaptation to climate change in development policies and to pursue efforts to reduce or remove the key barriers to implementation at the local level.

The Determinants of Public Administrators’ Participation in Policy Formulation

There are few who would question that within their everyday discretionary choices and decision making, public servants can develop into consequential and dynamic actors in the policy process. Participation in policy formulation is a particularly meaningful stage within which administrators can make a noticeable impact in shaping public policy. Whether they do so or not often comes down to an individual choice. Yet, while there is a great deal of anecdotal evidence regarding public servants’ involvement in policy formulation, there is relatively less empirical research in the area. In particular, there is little known about the conditions under which some public administrators are more likely than others to seek to become involved in policy formulation. This study explores the effects that stakeholders’ expectations, self-expectations, administrative discretion, and tenure have on administrators’ predispositions to seek opportunities to participate in the formulation of public policy issues they find important.

Nurses' Involvement in HIV Policy Formulation in Nigerian Health Care System

Background of study: Nigerian national policy on HIV stresses the need for the adoption of multi-sectoral and multi-disciplinary approach in policy formulation, with the health sector taking the lead. This calls for collaboration among the various stakeholders including nurses in policy development initiatives to ensure that diverse health care needs and disciplinary perspectives are captured in HIV health policies. Purpose: This paper will present the findings of a recent study which examined nurse’s involvement in policy development in the context of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV in Nigeria. Methodology: A qualitative case study design under the guiding tenets of critical social and power theories. The research is a single case study of one state with embedded units. Thirty nurse-leaders from the various embedded units were recruited through purposive and snowball sampling technique. Semi-structured in-depth interviews and document reviews were used for data collection. Focus group discussions were used as a form of member-checking and also to generate data. Data was analysed using thematic analysis. Results: This paper focuses on the major themes that emerged from the study as well as highlight specific interplay of power dynamics in the health care system which hinders nurse’s involvement in policy formulation. Conclusion: The paper concludes with some of the lessons learnt in the study and proffer suggestions for effective integration of nurses into policy arena. It suggests the need for a broad-based educational curriculum which will incorporate strategies to build nurses capacity for leadership and policy development in nursing training schools.

The Politics behind the Consultation of Expert Groups: An Instrument to Reduce Uncertainty or to Offset Salience?

This paper answers the following question: Do the uncertainty and salience of issues determine whether the European Commission will use an expert group to assist with policy formulation? Using rationalist theory, three hypotheses test whether transversality, the importance of standard-setting and the salience of a policy proposal determine whether a Commission DG will ask an expert group to assist in preparing that same proposal. Data was retrieved from official docu-ments via EUR-Lex. A binary logistic regression analysis has been conducted on a sample of 260 proposals that were drafted by DG Climate Action, DG Communications Networks, Content & Technology, DG Environment and DG Internal Market and Services. All proposals were adopted between 2010 and 2013. The empirical analysis shows that expert group involvement in policy formulation is neither negligible nor ubiquitous in terms of frequency as expert groups as-sisted in preparing 33.5% of the proposals. DGs were significantly more likely to consult an expert group when the pro-posal under preparation was more transversal in nature and/or when that proposal treated standard-setting more pro-nouncedly. In contrast, the salience of a proposal was shown to be insignificantly related to the presence of an expert group during policy formulation.

El papel de la investigación en las políticas de inmigración e integración. Estudio exploratorio del policy-research nexus en España

¿Hasta qué punto y cómo la investigación académica en cienciassociales ha tenido un impacto en el policymaking de las políticas deinmigración e integración en España? A partir del análisis de 14entrevistas con investigadores y la revisión de la literatura académica,este trabajo señala dos cuestiones. Primero, la investigación sobreinmigración en España surgió a demanda de las organizaciones socialesy administraciones, que según crecía la población inmigrada necesitabandatos para fundamentar sus políticas incipientes. Segundo, tomandocomo partida el modelo propuesto por Penninx (2005), señalamos quemientras que la centralización de las políticas de inmigración ha llevado aun papel marginal de los investigadores, el carácter más bottom-up delas políticas de integración ha determinado una mayor implicación,especialmente en la fase de formulación.

Public Reporting of Cost and Quality Information in Orthopaedics

Public reporting of patient health outcomes offers the potential to incentivize quality improvement by fostering increased accountability among providers. Voluntary reporting of risk-adjusted outcomes in cardiac surgery, for example, is viewed as a "watershed event" in healthcare accountability. However, public reporting of outcomes, cost, and quality information in orthopaedic surgery remains limited by comparison, attributable in part to the lack of standard assessment methods and metrics, provider fear of inadequate adjustment of health outcomes for patient characteristics (risk adjustment), and historically weak market demand for this type of information. We review the origins of public reporting of outcomes in surgical care, identify existing initiatives specific to orthopaedics, outline the challenges and opportunities, and propose recommendations for public reporting of orthopaedic outcomes. We performed a comprehensive review of the literature through a bibliographic search of MEDLINE and Google Scholar databases from January 1990 to December 2010 to identify articles related to public reporting of surgical outcomes. Orthopaedic-specific quality reporting efforts include the early FDA adverse event reporting MedWatch program and the involvement of surgeons in the Physician Quality Reporting Initiative. Issues that require more work include balancing different stakeholder perspectives on quality reporting measures and methods, defining accountability and attribution for outcomes, and appropriately risk-adjusting outcomes. Given the current limitations associated with public reporting of quality and cost in orthopaedic surgery, valuable contributions can be made in developing specialty-specific evidence-based performance measures. We believe through leadership and involvement in policy formulation and development, orthopaedic surgeons are best equipped to accurately and comprehensively inform the quality reporting process and its application to improve the delivery and outcomes of orthopaedic care.

Guest Editorial: Health Disparities Across the Cancer Continuum

Health Disparities Across the Cancer Continuum Vickie L. Shavers, Pebbles Fagan, and Paige McDonald (bio) Persistent disparities in health among racial/ethnic minority populations have stimulated interest in increasing the participation of racial/ethnic minority scientists in health disparities research. The 2002 report of the Institute of Medicine (IOM), Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Health Care,1 recognized the need to expand minority investigator competition and involvement in health disparities research as one of four areas of emphasis for addressing health disparities among racial/ethnic minority populations. The IOM specifically recommended that the National Cancer Institute (NCI) support training for minority investigators in health disparities research to increase their involvement in policy formulation and program design. There are several reasons to increase the number of racial/ethnic minorities who are principal investigators on both publicly and privately funded research. First, the enhanced participation and inclusion of minority scientists in primary research roles provides an opportunity to incorporate their unique perspectives, insights, and experiences towards gaining an understanding of the causes of racial/ethnic disparities in health, as well as in developing effective solutions. Second, racial/ethnic minority investigators are more likely than other investigators to focus their research on diseases and risks that disproportionately impact racial/ethnic minority populations.2 The National Institutes of Health (NIH), a major funder of health related research, has also recognized the need to increase the representation of racial/ethnic minority researchers among NIH funded principal investigators. One of the 27 Institutes and Centers that comprise the NIH, NCI has developed a number of programs designed to increase the interest and involvement of underrepresented minorities in health research. We are pleased to present this special issue of the Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved , entitled Health Disparities across the Cancer Continuum, which features the research of participants in two NCI-sponsored training activities held in 2006. The Health Disparities Research Methods Training Symposium, which was co-sponsored by the NCI Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, The American Legacy Foundation, the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) Office on Women's [End Page 1] Health, and the Tobacco Research Network on Disparities, was a one-day training program designed to increase technical research skills and promote interest, involvement, and training of junior investigators and the participation of senior researchers in health disparities research. The 2nd Biennial Career Development Workshop to Increase Diversity in Research Funding (2nd Biennial) was jointly sponsored by the NCI Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, the NCI Office of Women's Health, the NCI Center to Reduce Cancer Health Disparities, the California Breast Cancer Awareness Program, the California Tobacco-Related Disease Research Program (TRDRP), and the DHHS Office on Women's Health. The 2nd Biennial was three-day workshop designed to enhance the ability of mid-career and/or transitioning investigators from racial/ethnic minority and other underrepresented groups to compete successfully for NIH funding by providing training that facilitated their professional growth and development and increased their technical and grant writing skills. This special issue showcases the research contributions made by underrepresented minority scientists and health disparities researchers in the areas of tobacco, cancer screening, breast and prostate cancer, health risks and communication, research methodology and organizational collaboration. The Heroes and Great Ideas column highlights and celebrates the contributions made by Mr. Frank Jackson (formerly of NCI), and Dr. Richard P. Bragg from the Centers for Medicaid and Medicare Services to the training and mentoring of scientists from underrepresented minority groups. As the title suggests, the topics in this issue span the cancer continuum and focus on research relevant to health disparities. The first three articles focus on tobacco. Tobacco-related illnesses such as cancer and cardiovascular disease are major contributors to disparities in health outcomes observed among racial/ethnic minority populations.3,4 The first article by Yerger, Przewoznik, and Malone explores the contribution of the tobacco industry to the prevalence of smoking and use of mentholated cigarettes among urban African Americans. The authors posit that disparities in tobacco-related diseases among African Americans are a consequence not only of tobacco use behavior but also of the disproportionate distribution of conditions...

Association for Library Collections & Technical Services Annual Report 2005–2006

The Association for Library Collections & Technical Services (ALCTS) is committed to shaping and responding to all matters related to the selection, identification, acquisition, organization, management, retrieval, and preservation of recorded knowledge. ALCTS strives to provide this leadership to its members through education, publication, and collaboration. This year, the division focused its efforts and accomplishments in the following areas: education, collaboration through active involvement in policy formulation, publication, and organization. Education Continuing education has been a cornerstone of the services that ALCTS provides to its members. Because of its importance to ALCTS, the Education Committee (Karen Letarte, chair) sponsored an Education Action Summit during the Midwinter Meeting. Members from various division and section committees, the Council of Regional Groups, and other ALCTS leaders attended a half-day summit designed to move the ALCTS continuing education program into a higher gear. Maureen Sullivan facilitated for a thought-provoking afternoon, during which attendees talked about educational needs and the resources required to advance continuing education within ALCTS. We look forward to implementing some of the conclusions that were reached during the meeting. A number of new workshops were developed and delivered in 2005 and 2006. Among them are: * Basic Collection Development and Management * Principles of Controlled Vocabulary and Thesaurus Design, an ALCTS and Library of Congress Workshop * Metadata Standards and Applications, an ALCTS and Library of Congress Workshop * Metadata and Digital Library Development, an ALCTS and Library of Congress Workshop * Digital Project Management for the 21st Century, an ALCTS and Library of Congress Workshop Continuing workshops include: * Basic Subject Cataloging Using LCSH, an ALCTS/PCC Workshop * Rules and Tools for Cataloging Internet an ALCTS and Library of Congress Workshop * Web Course: Fundamentals of Acquisitions Collaboration and Policy Formation Collaboration and policy formation are key areas for ALCTS. Focusing on policy issues that affect our members is an important service that ALCTS provides. This year we passed two resolutions that address policy. The board passed the Resolution on the Distribution of Government Information by the Government Printing Office, which encouraged the Government Printing Office to work in close collaboration with the library and information communities to develop efficient and effective mechanisms for the dissemination and preservation of government information in digital form. We also joined the Association of Research Libraries (ARL) and the Association of College and Research Libraries in endorsing the statement Urgent Action Needed to Preserve Scholarly Electronic Resources, thereby acknowledging the importance of the preservation of electronic journal collections. We extended a collaborative partnership with ARL in the area of digital preservation. This culminated in an ALCTS Forum on Digital Preservation at the 2006 Annual Conference in New Orleans. In the spirit of collaboration, the ALCTS board approved a new award, the ALCTS Outstanding Collaboration Citation, to encourage improvements and benefits in providing and managing library collaboration between libraries and individuals, vendors, and organizations that work with libraries. …

The implementation of a local primary care incentive scheme: medical vs management priorities

Treats GPs’ perceptions of their level of influence in designing the primary care development scheme as a litmus test of their professional involvement in driving NHS policy and whether a corporate role for e´lite practitioners affords increased influence over rank‐and‐file colleagues. Documenting medical involvement in policy formulation distinguishes the response of those GPs who perform a management role on the professional executive committee (PEC) from those concentrating on clinical practice. The research findings are based on the responses of a sample of 27 GPs who were interviewed across two PCT sites in northern England. A form of restratification was evident from the pattern of consultations with a select group of GPs who mediated policies. The attitudes of rank‐and‐file practitioners towards the e´lite stratum of GPs reinforced notions of a new division in general practice. Incentive scheme proposals may have been rejected in their entirety by rank‐and‐file GPs and medical representative bodies, had it not been for the intervention of PEC GPs who played a vital role in promoting acceptance of PCT policies. Yet PEC GPs also experienced a sense of disempowerment vis‐a`‐vis managers.

Soil health: research, practice and policy for a more regenerative agriculture

Drawing on academic literature and personal experience, the authors highlight trends emerging from sustainable agriculture efforts in developing countries, involving research institutions, action agencies, and communities, to provide recommendations for advancing a soil health movement. They argue that multi-disciplinary and -institutional efforts on soil health that link research, practice, and political action will be needed for improved agriculture and more promising futures. During this century soil research has concentrated on soil chemical and physical factors, with comparative neglect of biological factors. Consequently, there is relatively limited understanding of how best to capitalize on the dynamics and potentials of soil biology so as to enhance the regenerative capacity of soil systems for agriculture. More agronomic research and empirical experience for biologically-based agriculture are called for. Although better understanding and practices can serve immediate on-farm needs, they alone would unlikely achieve the desirable changes in farming systems. Policies and institutional arrangements profoundly influence agricultural research and practice, so effective soil health initiatives must also engage broader social and political considerations. In particular, the author’s argue for greater balance in research and teaching to emphasize biology and ecology, enhanced linkages between research and extension, new inter-institutional partnerships and collaboration, and increased stakeholder involvement in policy formulation and implementation.

The role of public administrators in public policy making: Practice and prospects in Nigeria

AbstractIn Nigeria, as elsewhere, the role of the career bureaucracy in public policy making has constituted a subject of conflicting interpretation, practice, and prescription. Although higher public servants have always played a major part in shaping public policy, the extent of their involvement has ebbed and flowed in response to legal, structural, and political changes at the federal, state, and local government levels. In recent years, the exercise of policy making and implementing roles by public administrators has evoked mounting public criticism and top‐level career servants in Nigeria have faced unusually serious challenges to their authority. Moreover, confusion over the proper scope of administrative involvement in policy formulation and execution reached new heights both within and outside the public services following the adoption of elected executive forms of government in 1979.The article traces the shifts in bureaucratic policy‐making roles and relationships which occurred in the First Republic period, under different military regimes, and immediately following the return to civilian rule. The prospect that more fundamental changes will be forthcoming in the nature and extent of administrative involvement in public policy formation and execution is then explored in the context of past and current practice and conventions, key provisions of the 1979 Constitution, and recent social, political, and economic developments. The author concludes that public administrators will continue to be centrally involved in the policy‐making process under present structural arrangements and that a reorientation of the public services away from their prevailing preoccupation with promoting vested interests requires the development of more broadly based political organizations.

Why does medical care cost so much?

Abstract The major element in medical-care costs is manpower. The production of more doctors and allied personnel is often promoted as an effective way of reducing unit costs and improving distribution. Expansion of manpower, however, under the present delivery and financing systems would not lower price, improve distribution or have any measurable impact on the health of the population. Analysis of the present health system, furthermore, shows that it has relatively little to do with health and that it is tangential to many health problems. More necessary than mere increases in manpower are broader concepts of health services, clearly enunciated health goals, more consumer involvement in policy formulation, greater exploitation of the process of organization, more sophisticated management, the striking down of various artificial impediments to change and more imaginative methods of payment.